Multiple Sclerosis and Autism Spectrum Disorder Causes

Multiple Sclerosis and Autism Spectrum Disorder Causes Multiple sclerosis and Autism spectrum disorder are two neurophysiological diseases that are found to develop in the genetically susceptible population. The exact causes of these diseases and the exact interplay between the genetic factors and environmental factors in the development of the disease are serving to be a billion dollar question. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS: Symptoms and Progression: MS is a chronic neurological condition which affects the central nervous system (CNS).1 The CNS consists of the brain, optic nerves and the spinal cord. As the CNS controls various motor and behavioural functions in the body, an array of symptoms develops. The symptoms as well as the progression of the disease varies significantly from individual to individual. The symptoms in most individuals though, start at the age of 20 to 40, but the symptoms are really slight that they usually go unnoticed till the disease progresses. In few individuals, the symptoms are noticeable right at the onset of the disease itself.2 SYMPTOMS: VISUAL IMPAIRMENT: As the disease attacks the optic nerves, visual problems arise in the patients. The inflammation of the optic nerves lead to severe pain behind the eyes. Double vision is a really common symptom in MS patients. In certain patients, even vision loss is reported. BLADDER AND BOWEL PROBLEMS: 50% of the patients have constipation which sometimes lead to faecal impaction. Bladder problems arise which makes the patient to urinate more frequently. COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS: Hearing impairment, loss of memory or short term memory loss, slurred speech, attention troubles. Dizziness and depression are reported as well. MOTOR SYMPTOMS: Numbness, tremor, gait, muscle spasms and seizures, fatigue and vertigo. SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS: Males affected by MS have difficulty in getting / maintaining an erection. Females affected by MS have difficulty in getting orgasms.2 PROGRESSION OF DISEASE: The progression of disease, just like the symptoms, vary from one individual to another. There are five types of progression seen in MS patients. Relapsing-remitting MS: Majority of patients show this kind of progression. As the name suggests, there are episodes of mild/severe symptoms followed by episodes of very mild or no symptoms at all. The episode of attacks usually lasts between few hours to a few months! Primary progressive MS: About 10-15% of the patients have primary progressive MS. The severity of the symptoms worsen progressively. No relapse and remission cycle is seen in these patients. Secondary progressive MS: The initial stages of the disease show relapse and remission cycles. But after a certain point, the symptoms worsen gradually, just like in the primary progressive MS. Progressive relaxing MS: In these patients, the symptoms are followed by recovery, but the severity of the symptoms increase gradually. Benign MS: The individuals undergoes episodes of mild symptoms but gets recovered completely ergo no permanent disability.3 GENETIC FACTORS: The researchers have identified certain genes and environmental factors which most likely cause and progress the disease. One striking observation is that genetic linkage studies have shown the variation in the genes associated with the Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC) promotes the risk for developing MS in individuals.4 The group of genes called the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes encodes for Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in our body.5 The HLA genes are present in the short arm of chromosome no 6. The MHC consists of two classes. The genes HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C form the MHC class I. The genes HLA-DP, HLA-DQ and HLA-DR make up the MHC class II. The MHC proteins bind to the T-cells to recognize antigens.6So, the MHC basically helps the immune system to differentiate between self and non-self cells (a property called as MHC restriction).6 It has been identified that the HLA-DRB1 mutant alleles and HLA-A alleles increases the risk of developing the disease.7,8 Though these are the most commonly reported variant gene present in MS, variants in genes present in the HLA system such as HLA-DR15, HLA- DQ6,etc have been linked to the disease as well.7 Also, variants in IL7R have been linked to MS. Presence of C risk allele of the IL7R gene decreases the expression of IL7R.9 IL7 signalling pathway is essential for the T cell differentiation of CD4-CD8- thymocytes.10It also plays a major role in maintaining the T-cell homeostasis. Variant of the IL7R results in the decrease in the expression of IL7R which affects the interlukin pathway, thereby disrupting the T cell development and T cell homeostasis.10 But with the help of genome wide association studies (GWAS), a set of 12 susceptible genes which promotes the risk for developing MS have been identified recently.11,12,13 Although the effect of variations in these genes are not as profound as the variations in the HLA gene system.11 Demyelination: The neuron/nerve cells comprises of a cell body and an extension from the cell body called axon. The axons play a central role in carrying the message from one neuron to another. The axons in the body usually have a coating rich in lipids, called the myelin. Myelin insulates the axon and protects it (just like an insulating coating over an electrical wire).14This helps in the efficient nerve transmission. Myelin present in the central nervous system are produced by a special set of cells called the oligodendrocytes.15 It is believe that in MS patients, a wayward immune system is unable to differentiate between the self and non-self cells and cause an inflammatory response, most likely because of the variations present in the HLA gene system and IL7. This triggers the T-cells to attack and destroy the myelin sheath of the axon or the oligodendrocytes (cells that produce the myelin sheath), keeping the nerve fibres unprotected and uninsulated. This is called as demyelination.14This consequently causes destruction to the nerve fibre (as the protective sheath is degenerated). This produces many scar tissues or lesions (hence the name multiple sclerosis) along the nerve cells, thereby limiting or blocking the transmission of impulses through the nerve cells. Consequently, the brain cannot communicate properly with the other parts of the CNS and eventually causes the various symptoms that are seen in the MS patients. In a nut shell, the disease is believed to be caused by the interplay between inflammat ion and neurodegeneration.1 After the episode of attack, the inflammation reaction may get halted and the neurons that are not demyelinated resume their normal function and even some recovery is possible (as seen in the relapsing-remitting type of progression). It has also been shown that the demyelinated axons tend to produce more sodium channels and this helps in the remission.16 So, sodium channels are rightfully targeted for the MS therapy now.17 Also, even though the oligodendrocytes are not present around to remylinate immediately, myelin does grow back, but it may take a real long time.15 Picture Source: [eMedicineHealth, (2014).Myelin and the Central Nervous System Causes, Symptoms, Treatment What is myelin? eMedicineHealth. [online] Available at: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/myelin_and_the_central_nervous_system/page2_em.htm] AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that causes social, cognitive and language impairment and the tendency to show repetitive behaviour, interests and activities in the individuals.18 ASD is a collection of neurodevelopmental disorder.19The main types of ASD are: Autism, Asperger’s syndrome, Pervasive developmental disorder- not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). The rare disorders in the class are Rett syndrome and Childhood disintegrative disorder.18 Symptoms and Progression: Symptoms include impairment of social relationships, lack of communication and lack of imagination skills and signs of repetitive behaviour. Symptoms vary from one individual to another significantly. 18Asperger’s syndrome patients did not have significant cognitive impairment/delays like autism patients. PDD-NOS is considered as the milder form of autistic behaviour and usually show symptoms in one area, for instance, just lack of social communication.19 The progression of the disease is also different in different patients. Symptoms in childhood may include constant crying, sleeping problems, absence of speech, repetitive movements like handshake or clapping, lack of eye contact, etc. Symptoms in the adolescence and adulthood may be mood imbalance, presence of disability becomes more obvious and prominent, increased anxiety levels, epilepsy and seizures in rare cases.19 Genetic factors: ADS is more of a syndrome than a disease, caused by a variety of genetic and environmental factors.19 Whole genome screens, next generation sequencing (NGS) and cytogenetic studies have been carried out to figure out the genes involved in the cause of the syndrome.20 ADS is a really complex neurological condition which is linked to about 100 genes as of now. 21The genes generally fall into: genes regulating synapsis genes regulating transcription Mutation of genes that are involved in the synaptic functions are commonly observed in ASD. A few important genes are discussed below: Neurexin (NLGN3, NLGN4) and Neuroligin (NRXN1): The genes involved in the production of Neurexin and neuregulin are commonly found mutated genes in ASD. Neurexin and Neuregulin act as neuronal cell surface receptors and organize the interaction between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons. Neurexin interacts with CASK in the pre-synaptic neuron. Neuroligin interact with PSD95 in the post- synaptic neuron. The two proteins interacts with intracellular factors as well as scaffolding protein, forming a trans-synaptic interaction necessary for a synapsis to exist. Mutations in the genes encoding for these proteins have been reported in ASD patients. Also, the targeted knock out of these genes in the mouse model have caused deregulation of synaptic function. Mutation of neurexin in mice have shown to disrupt the voltage-gated calcium channel, thereby hindering pre-synaptic release of vesicles. Mutations in neuroligin in ASD patients reduced the expression of neroligin, thereby causing less interaction with neurexin thereby causin g synaptic transmission defects.22 SHANK: SHANK consists of three genes: SHANK1, SHANK2, SHANK3. SHANK is involved in the post-synaptic neuron. It interacts with PSD95 and SAPAP and form a protein complex which regulates the formation of dendritic spine. Overexpression of SHANK3 results in the increase in the dendritic spine and the knockdown results in the decrease of dendritic spine formation. Reduced dendritic spine formation leads to defective postsynaptic structure thereby inhibiting synaptic transmission.22 Also, mutations in cadherin9, cadherin10 and cadherin15 are observed in ADS patients. Mutations in these genes destabilize the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic interactions, thereby inhibiting synapsis, leading to autistic symptoms.22 Contactin associated protein-like 2 (CNTNAP2): CNTNAP2 is a member of the neurexin family that encodes for a neuronal membrane protein that helps in the trans-synaptic interaction. Mutations in this gene have been reported in autistic patients.20 MECP2 gene: Methyl –cytosine binding protein (MECP2), a transcriptional regulator, is mutated in Rett syndrome. The gene is present in the X chromosome. This mutation occurs exclusively in females as the mutation of this gene in males is lethal. Mutation of this gene results in leads to reduced release of vesicles in inhibitory synapsis and affecting the excitation to inhibition ration. 23Another rare mutation in the form of the transcriptional regulator, ARX, is seen in autistic patients.23 Picutre Source: [Walsh, C., Morrow, E. and Rubenstein, J. (2008). Autism and Brain Development.Cell, 135(3), pp.396-400.] Role of demyelination in the disease: Mutations in HLA region (like MS) and increased level of IL12 are reported in autism.24 This causes the T cells to attack the myelin sheath. The damage of myelin sheath ergo nerve cells (mechanism explained above) have been a factor of brain damage in autistic individuals. Neuropathological findings suggest a role for demyelination in the damage of amygdala, hippocampus and cerebellum of autistic patients.24 Environmental factors: Along with the genetic factors, the environmental factors also seem to play a role in the development and progression of these two diseases. Lack of Vitamin D supposedly plays a role in increasing the risk of developing MS.2 Mercury vaccines have been suspected to increase the risk of developing ASD.25 Mercury vaccine results in the deficiency of zinc and that in turn impacts the level of vitamin B12.25 Vitamin B12 in turn is essential for myelin sheath formation.25 In sum, these two neurological diseases are really complex and not yet fully understood yet. Tonnes of research are being performed in order to understand the cause and the exact interplay of genetic factors in the development of disease. Fully understanding the diseases would also provide better ways to treat individuals affected by these devastating complex neurological diseases. REFERENCES: McDonald WI, Ron MA. Multiple sclerosis: the disease and its manifestations.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences1999;354(1390):1615-1622. Irishhealth.com, (2014).Multiple sclerosis irishhealth.com. [online] Available at: http://www.irishhealth.com/article.html?con=191 [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Irishhealth.com, (2014).Multiple sclerosis irishhealth.com. [online] Available at: http://www.irishhealth.com/article.html?con=191 [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Rubio JP, Speed TP, Bahlo M, Kilpatrick TJ, Foote SJ. The current state of multiple sclerosis genetic research. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore. 2000;29(3):322-30. Baranzini SE. Revealing the genetic basis of multiple sclerosis: are we there yet? Current Opinion in Genetics Development. 2011;21(3):317-24. Kindt, T., Goldsby, R., Osborne, B. and Kuby, J. (2007).Kuby immunology. New York: W.H. Freeman. Genetic risk and a primary role for cell-mediated immune mechanisms in multiple sclerosis. Nature. 2011;476(7359):214-9. Genetic risk and a primary role for cell-mediated immune mechanisms in multiple sclerosis. Nature. 2011;476(7359):214-9. Gregory, S., Schmidt, S., Seth, P., Oksenberg, J., Hart, J., Prokop, A., Caillier, S., Ban, M., Goris, A., Barcellos, L., Lincoln, R., McCauley, J., Sawcer, S., Compston, D., Dubois, B., Hauser, S., Garcia-Blanco, M., Pericak-Vance, M. and Haines, J. (2007). Interleukin 7 receptor ÃŽ ± chain (IL7R) shows allelic and functional association with multiple sclerosis.Nat Genet, 39(9), pp.1083-1091. Lundmark F, Duvefelt K, Iacobaeus E, Kockum I, Wallstrom E, Khademi M, et al. Variation in interleukin 7 receptor alpha chain (IL7R) influences risk of multiple sclerosis. Nature genetics. 2007;39(9):1108-13. The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium The Australo-Anglo-American Spondylitis Consortium.Association scan of 14,500 nonsynonymous SNPs in four diseases identifies autoimmunity variants.Nature Genet.39,1329–1337(2007) The ANZgene Consortium.Genome-wide association study identifies new multiple sclerosis susceptibility loci on chromosomes 12 and 20.Nature Genet.41,824–828(2009). The International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium.Risk alleles for multiple sclerosis identified by a genomewide study.N. Engl. J. Med.357,851–862(2007). Waxman SG. Demyelination in spinal cord injury and multiple sclerosis: what can we do to enhance functional recovery? Journal of neurotrauma. 1992;9 Suppl 1:S105-17. eMedicineHealth, (2014).Myelin and the Central Nervous System Causes, Symptoms, Treatment What is myelin? eMedicineHealth. [online] Available at: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/myelin_and_the_central_nervous_system/page2_em.htm [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Moll C, Mourre C, Lazdunski M, Ulrich J. Increase of sodium channels in demyelinated lesions of multiple sclerosis. Brain research. 1991;556(2):311-6. Waxman SG. Sodium channels as molecular targets in multiple sclerosis. Journal of rehabilitation research and development. 2002;39(2):233-42. Muhle R, Trentacoste SV, Rapin I. The genetics of autism. Pediatrics. 2004;113(5):e472-86 Webmd.com, (2014).Autism Spectrum Disorders Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatments. [online] Available at: http://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/autism-spectrum-disorders [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. B., J., L., T., Benson, M., Bray-Ward, P. and R., A. (2011). Immune Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorder.Autism A Neurodevelopmental Journey from Genes to Behaviour. Ucsf.edu, (2014).Dozens of Genes Associated with Autism in New Research | ucsf.edu. [online] Available at: http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2014/10/120146/dozens-genes-associated-autism-new-research [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Zhan, Y. and Kong, X. (2011). Synaptic Dysfunction Attributes to Autism Spectrum Disorder.American Chinese Journal of Medicine and Science, 4(3), p.112. Walsh, C., Morrow, E. and Rubenstein, J. (2008). Autism and Brain Development.Cell, 135(3), pp.396-400. Ashwood P, Wills S, Van de Water J. The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2006;80(1):1-15. The vaccine-autism connection: a public health crisis caused by unethical medical practices and fraudulent science..The Annals of pharmacotherapy45(10): 1302–4.

Biographical Sketch Of August Aichorn

Born in Vienna about 129 years ago on the 27th of July August Aichhorn was to change the face of Special Education forever in the years to come. Of course, no one in his family or amongst his friends or neighbors could have predicted his illustrious future since he was, like most kids, little more than a gawky bespectacled studious little thing while in school.There was little to be noticed about him except that he had a twin brother. This twin brother he lost at the age of 20. Heartbroken and a little frazzled (since he had after all been close to his sibling) he began teaching at a school in Vienna. He seemed to have had his career pretty clearly etched out in his mind.And a pretty predictable path it followed too. Teaching was a respectable profession those days and young respectable young men from well-established families (like him) jumped at the chance to pursue it. Only problem was that in those days once you chose a career for yourself you were expected to stick to it until y ou were too old to continue with it and had to retire with a pension.The hop-skip and jump routine we are so used to performing in the job market today was an absolute no-no then. Unfortunately Aichhorn soon discovered that conventional rules such as these did not matter much to him.In 1907 when the Boy’s military settlement was introduced in Vienna Aichhorn, then an enthusiastic 27 year old, opposed it vehemently and finally managed to outdo the system with his exuberance. Soon after, in 1908 he assumed the role of the chairman of a brand new board designed only to organize boys’ settlements.By means of his rather effective and well-directed activism he therefore managed to keep he education system, a system he had now grown to love and honor, from being maligned by the now growing ‘military spirit’.With great determination he now endeavored to take his devotion to the system to the next logical level, the institution he organized in Oberhollabrunn for de linquent boys was an outcome of this very attempt. (Dollard, 2006)In Oberhollabrunn Aichhorn managed the unthinkable by creating out of the dilapidated remains of a refugee camp what was later considered to be one the most sensitive, touching and humanitarian studies of human behavior. This was a period of flux for what had once been a great and much respected monarchy in Austria.Old Austrian traditions were now being dragged into the street and left ankle deep in poverty and shame. Austrians were striving to keep themselves afloat despite the tremendous inflation and revolution brewed. Amongst it all Aichhorn chose to, characteristically, stay away from all the humdrum and surrender himself completely to work.As in every other state of chaos Austria was now becoming a cauldron for trouble, crime and delinquency was frothing up and societal pressures were getting harder to bear than ever before. Amidst it all Aichhorn dreamed of a way to bring back hope to crime doers. Of course he was not original in his subject choice.Dozens before him had meddled with the same topic rather unsuccessfully. Many of Aichhorn predecessors had advocated some old school mercy and ‘understanding, while others had strongly recommended a good dose of thrashing all in order to bring wrongdoers to their senses and recuperate them.Aichhorn however was not a big fan of either approach. In Oberhollabrunn he had the opportunity to put into practical use the sort of methods he considered truly effective to deal with crime and delinquency. What he saw and understood he finally put down in the form of a book, now the ‘Bible’ in the field – Wayward Youth. (Lamb, 2004)It is perhaps a little difficult to really grasp the importance of the door Aichhorn managed to open up to the public and academicians by suggesting that psychoanalytic principles be applied to the study of delinquent behavior today in 2007, when much has been said and done in this direction.Despite the progress we have made in the field however Aichhorn’s work, the Wayward Youth still continues to be a supremely important resource book simply because of its pioneering nature. In the field of crime and delinquent psychology Aichhorn’s work still continue to provide the basic fundamentals even when we have walked far enough to form complex sentences with these letters we will still have to turn to Aichhorn for support.What makes Wayward Youth such a complete pioneer is the fact that it distinguishes between what it terms the ‘latent’ and the ‘manifest’ delinquents. Further, it suggests that an arrested development inclines a person towards ‘antisocial’ behavior.Hence, a troubled child-parent relationship in the early years of the infant might be the primary reason behind his/her delinquent actions in later life.Aichhorn’s capacity to deal with delinquents is often been described as ‘instinctive’ or ‘intui tive’. After having discovered his talent in dealing with antisocial behavior Aichhron was further influenced and encouraged to train himself in the field of psychoanalysis by none other than Anna Freud, daughter of the man who began it all Sigmund Freud, who was herself engaged in some remarkable studies of the human mind.Aichhorn joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute at the ripe age or 44, in 1922. He would later organize a special service for child guidance in the same institution.Aichhorn remained in Austria even during the tumultuous 1930’s, thanks to his non-Jew background and the utter ease with which he handled the Nazis.He worked quietly during the war years and waited patiently for the storm to pass and a new day for psychoanalysis to begin in the post-war era once the war ended Aichhorn enthusiastically reopened the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, only now it was to be called August Aichhorn Gesellschaft. (King, 2000)It was also a regeneration time. Ideo logical conflicts and military interests were shaking civilization right up to its foundations. The doubts, dilemmas and confusions were gradually, quite slowly indeed, giving way to a new and unique cultural revolution. It was happening all across the Western world.People suddenly seemed to realize that there was enough of political warfare to disgrace humanity. (Fletcher, 2005)The prevailing standards suddenly seemed to be meaningless, and the insurgent youths wanted something different to happen and Aichhorn was one of the characters of the era that found himself into his own elements in such a situation.He never lost hope and continued to proceed in the direction he was meant to be. It is certain he never became frustrated like many of the individuals of the post war period and stood firm on his ground rather that drift away. (Kar, 2006)Many think Aichhorn’s tryst with delinquents began early even while he struggled as a grade school teacher in the city of Vienna. He hank ered for a theoretical base which would be able to support and expand his understanding of the world of these crime doers and help him set them right again.Hungry to fulfill this desire he studied neuropathology, like many his age during that period unfortunately neuropathology did little to quench his question, instead it only made him wonder further.Desperate he now tried his hands at experimental psychology, which too failed to satisfy him. It was only when he would finally discover psycho-analysis that he would finally find all the missing pieces to his puzzle. (Edelman, 2001)

Anti-Communism in America

– Analyse the impact of anti-communism in the USA from the late 1940’s to 1953 and the impact this had on tensions between the superpowers during this time. In the years between 1940 and 1953 the capitalist nations of the world such as USA became very concerned about the communist ideologies and its possible spread in the world. As a result, the ideological war period known as the â€Å"Cold War† was developed. With the end of World War II, the USA emerged with a renewed sense of confidence as they believed that their role in the Allie alliance was a key factor when defeating their enemy powers.It was not long, however, before ironically, this alliance between USA and USSR would be the cause for rising tensions in the world. It can be suggested that the rise of Cold War tensions led to the Anti-communist policy being being developed in the USA which not only impacted its own country but also renewed Cold War tensions. This is evident when examining McCarthyism, t he Witch-Hunts and Trials, and the Propaganda campaign. The US historical period known as â€Å"McCarthyism† began long before Joseph McCarthy’s own involvement.There were many factors that contributed to its beginning including; the increased membership in the â€Å"Communist Party of the United States† during the late 1930’s and early 1940’s along with Soviets establishing communist regimes across Central and Eastern Europe. Later USA was concerned with Soviet espionage inside government institutions, and at the same time politicians were slowing down social reforms or criticizing President’s arguing they had been influenced by communism. (R) This practice of making accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence was later known as, McCarthyism.Joseph McCarthy’s own involvement began with a speech he made: â€Å"I have here in my hand in my hand a list of 205 – a list of names that were m ade known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department. (McCarthy, ). (R) As a result of McCarthyism there were many Anti-communist committees, as well as private agencies, carrying out investigations about possible communists in the USA.Furthermore the federal government, under Harry Truman’s administration with the help of FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover initiated a program of Loyalty Review for Federal Employees, with the aim of determining if government employees were disloyal to the government. (R) Hoover’s extreme sense of communist threat and numerous illegal practices including burglaries, opening mail and illegal wiretaps, resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs after unfair accusations or sometimes even without having any process. R) Among these victims was, Robert Oppenheimer, scientific director of the Manhattan Project who built the fir st atomic bomb. Historian Ellen Schrecker has written; â€Å"in this country, McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did†. (R) It was later proved that Soviet espionage did exist in the USA, but besides that fact it can be suggested that the American government could possibly had a greater threat of danger in order to react in such an extreme way, which created divisions still present in the USA.The House Committee on Un-American Activities(HUAC) was perhaps the most involved in Anti-communist investigations government committee. Earlier, this committee had investigated a number of activities including German-American Nazis during World War II, and later focused on communism, investigating an espionage case against Alger Hiss, American politician accused of perjury, in 1948. It was not until 1947 that HUAC achieved its greatest fame with the investigations into the Hollywood film industry.These investigations involved screenwrit ers, directors, and other professionals in testifying about their known, or suspected membership in the Communist Party, within its members, or support of its beliefs. The â€Å"Hollywood Ten†, as it was known, was a group of people formed by the first ten film industry witnesses that decided not to cooperate, and instead cited the First Amendment’s, which guaranteed freedom in speech and beliefs, but failed and were sentenced to prison (R).Later victims had the option of either being informants, and thus, give names of communist sympathizers or going to prison if refused to cooperate (R). On November25 of 1947, Eric Johnston, President of the Motion Picture Association of America published the â€Å"Waldorf Statement†, which announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten, and stated they would not employ any communist or member of a party which advocates to overthrow the government (R). This generated a †Hollywood Blacklist†, through which over 300 actor s, authors and directors were denied to work in the film industry.Those actions taken by the government not only placed USA’s famous â€Å"freedom† in question and showed an excessive use of power until the point that citizen’s rights were constantly violated but also created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion, which sometimes resulted in hysteria. These extreme measures led to a great division in the country that is still present these days. Distribution of Anti-communism propaganda was, without a doubt, one of the most successful measures taken by the USA government during this period of time. [email  protected] edu. au

Modern Hip-Hop and West African Percussion - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1749 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/07/29 Category Music Essay Level High school Tags: Hip Hop Essay Did you like this example? To many, music is like a constant companion. We listen to it when waking up, while in transit, at work or school, and with our friends. It can bring us joy and motivate us, accompany us through difficult times, and alleviate our worries. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Modern Hip-Hop and West African Percussion" essay for you Create order Many people make the argument that music existed earlier than language itself. Primitive tribes and religious practices have used music to reach enlightened states for thousands of years (www.psychologytoday.com). Music has evolved greatly over the past centuries, but can be traced back to Africa were percussion was prominent in daily life. West African percussion practices and techniques have made a significant contribution to modern day hip hop despite the constant imposition of Western culture. Hip hop music, also called hip-hop or rap music, is a music genre developed in the United States by inner-city African Americans in the 1970s which consists of a stylized rhythmic music that commonly accompanies rapping (a rhythmic and rhyming speech that is chanted). Melodies in modern day hip hop incorporate various techniques and structures from African music. For example, today the huge majority of rap songs utilize a musical form called adlibs. This is when something is stated within the song and is followed up by another lyric that is faint in volume and on the side. This method can be traced back to the African melody technique of call and response. African singing often includes glissandos. These are slurs, whistles, yodels and swoops and types of sound such as a raspy or buzzy quality. We can see this also in many modern day songs. Percussion in modern day hip hop is highly influenced by African culture. Percussion and hip hop today, is mostly credited toward Black Americans in the media. In many traditional African societies, the drum was a sacred instrument possessing supernatural power that enabled it to summon the gods into ritual communion with the people. In some societies drums were regarded as deities, deities whose voices were the percussive sounds that emanated (https://academicworks.cuny.edu). When enslaved Africans were first brought to North America during the 1600s and 1700s, slaves from the west coast of Africa used drums to communicate with each other in much the same way as they did at home, sending coded rhythmic messages Europeans could not understand over long distances. In this way slaves held in different encampments could stay in contact, and rebellions could be planned. But after some time the masters realized that the drums could talk. So in 1740, they passed the Slave Code of South Ca rolina where it stated that It is absolutely necessary to the safety of this Province, that all due care be taken to restrain Negroes from using or keeping of drums, which may call together or give sign or notice to one another of their wicked designs and purposes. (thisisafrica.me). This ban started on the plantations of the Carolinas and Georgia, but soon spread across the United States. In the absence of drums, slaves used whatever was in the area to make beats: washboards, spoons, furniture, and their own bodies with hand-clapping, drumming on various surfaces of the body, and foot-stomping / shuffling. Over the multiple years that African music has been in America, it has evolved and branched off to create various other genres. For example, enslaved Africans on southern plantations cultivated their own musical styles, which later evolved into gospel, blues, and what is now known as bluegrass and country music. Slave fiddlers often provided dance music for the southern white ar istocracy, and the sound we recognize today as country fiddling is partially the product of the slave fiddler. The rhythm, melodies and percussion of these genres of music then evolved to create more genres such as hip-hop. The term Western culture is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems, and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe, have both indigenous and foreign origin. The term has come to be applied by people of European Ethnicity to countries whose history is strongly marked by European immigration, colonization and influence, such as the continents of the Americas and Australia, whose current demographic majority is European ethnicity, and is not restricted to the continent of Europe. African music is part of everyday activities, everyone joins in clapping, singing and dancing to the music. It is part of rites and ceremonies where it is performed by master drummers and court musicians. Lastly, it is not normally written down, rather passed on through oral tradition. The traditional music of Africa is historically ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and nations of Africa having many dissimilar musical traditions. Music in Africa is very important when it comes to religions. Songs and music are used in religious ceremonies and rituals, to pass down stories from generation to generation, as well as to sing and dance to. African music is made up of complex rhythmic patterns, often involving one rhythm played against another to create a polyrhythm (a rhythm that makes use of two or more different rhythms simultaneously). The most common polyrhythm plays three beats on top of two, like a triplet played against straight notes. The most frequently used form in African musical traditions consists of the use of ostinato (repeated short musical phrases) with the accompaniment of melodic-rhythmic patterns. For example, in the call and response method, a leader usually sings a phrase and a chorus sings back a response. African musical instruments include a wide range of drums, slit gongs, rattles and double bells, different types of harps, and harp-like instruments such as the Kora and the ngoni, as well as fiddles, many kinds of xylophone and lamellophone such as the mbira, and different types of wind instrument like flutes. Today, instruments like these are typically used in beat production. However we find them to be automated by a machine more than actually played. In Conclusion, hip hop music is part of and speaks to a long line of black American and African diasporic cultural traditions. Much of what is written about hip hop traces this culture through a series of stages, from a music and dance focused phenomenon created for and by people in low income neighborhoods, to a dominant global youth culture. Many people also make a connection between rap and West African griot tradition, the art of wandering storytellers known for their knowledge of local settings and superior vocal skills. modern day hip hop takes heavy influence from traditional African culture despite the constant imposition of Western culture. Modern Day hip hop uses forms and structures that are influenced by traditional African music. Furthermore, it is evident that some African instruments have influenced the sound aesthetic in hip hop as well. For example, the flute is a common African instrument that is used in hip hop production. There are many music production softwares that have automated traditional African instruments, therefore people alter the sound generated to achieve something new and different. This is how modern music trends or new genres are formed. Annotated Bibliography Agrawal, AJ. The Evolution of the Music Industry Where We Go From Here. The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 22 July 2017, www.huffingtonpost.com/aj-agrawal/the-evolution-of-the-musi_b_11109130.html. African Percussion Instruments Their Traditional Use And Purpose. African Music Safari, www.african-music-safari.com/percussion-instruments.html. Codring, Raymond. In the Beginning: Hip Hops Early Influences. OUPblog, 21 July 2015, blog.oup.com/2006/08/in_the_beginnin/. GCSE Bitesize: African Music. BBC, BBC, www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/world_music/music_africa1.shtml. This source explores what African music is and how it is incorporated in everyday activities. This source is fairly limited in its content, but nonetheless it still summarizes African music successfully. The cite states that African music is part of rites and ceremonies, part of everyday activities, and is not normally written down but passed on through oral tradition. Furthermore it hints towards how African music was combined with folk music of the Europeans to create styles of music. Greenburg, David. What Is MusicExactly? Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 3 Aug. 2016, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-power-music/201608/what-is-music-exactly. Haus. The Roots of Hip Hop. History of Breakdancing, RM Hip Hop Magazine, www.globaldarkness.com/articles/roots_of_hiphop.htm. Hip Hop Production. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 June 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_production. Lindh, Nic. Hip-Hop Rooted in African Culture. Cronkite News Arizona PBS, Cronkite News Arizona PBS, 25 Feb. 2016, cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2016/02/25/hip-hop-rooted-in-african-culture/. Lincoln, Mark. The Powerful Influence of African Culture on Modern Music. JamPlay.com, JamPlay, LLC, 21 Apr. 2018, www.jamplay.com/articles/1-general/161-the-powerful-influence-of-african-culture-on-modern-music. Music of Africa. New World Encyclopedia, . 10 Nov 2015, 21:07 UTC. 29 May 2018, 15:50 This encyclopedia is very useful in its credibility and information. This source highlights how vast and varied the music of Africa is, due to different alterations of music within various tribes. Furthermore, it talks about the musical components of African traditional music. This includes: repetition, call and response, Hocketing, form, structure, polyphony, lyrics and many more. This source was very descriptive in pinpointing how the region effects the sound aesthetic, and African musics relationship to dance. Music of Africa. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 May 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Africa. Newatlantisline. African Music (Full Documentary). YouTube, YouTube, 17 Jan. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzAwHS7oQWs. This source was a documentary on African music and percussion. More specifically, I was the story of a street musician in Bamako names Lagare. His dream is to play in Europe. He now has the opportunity to perform alongside one of the best musicians in the country, Loby Traore, one of the drivers of African blues. Lagare contacts other skillful individuals (the interpreter Kora Touami Diabate, singer Umu Simayogo, pianist Joe Kayat) with which he reflects on the value of music in everyday society. Although this source is somewhat old, it still proves useful when understanding how African music is incorporated into the lives of many. This source is from a professional documentary page on YouTube called New Atlantis Full Documentaries. In terms of credibility, this is a verified source and they have links to various other social media pages. The History of African American Music.. The History of African American Music. African-American Years: Chronologies of American History and Experience, Encyclopedia.com, 2018, www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/history-african-american-music. Zhao. No Drums Allowed: Afro Rhythmic Mutations in America This Is Africa Lifestyle. This Is Africa, 22 Jan. 2018, thisisafrica.me/lifestyle/drums-allowed-afro-rhythmic-mutations-america/.